The Laws of Communities (4-2)

Listen to this article

Laws are rules for people in communities. For instance, in every country and culture of the world, there are laws against serious offenses: murder, robbery, violence against people, and the like. These laws make sense. They are necessary for safety and health, for community order, and for good human relationships in communities; they are probably similar all over the world. On the other hand, many laws and rules differ from country to country, from area to area, or even from one community to another. Some common illustrations of this variety are laws about driving, drinking alcohol, eating, smoking, shopping, money, people's rights, and many others. For example, a legal action in Lima, Peru, may be against the law in Seoul, Korea--and an illegal activity in an Asian community may be perfectly legal in a European city. On the other hand, laws may be the same in various countries but vary in different cities or states of the same nation.

Traffic laws--rules about driving and parking cars, riding bicycles, walking, and so on--vary in communities around the world. Here are some examples from the United States. In some rural (country) communities, teenagers with driving permits can drive alone after the age of fourteen; in most towns fifteen-year-olds can drive only with a licensed driver in the car; in still other places, the lowest legal driving age is sixteen or eighteen. In some states, drivers can make a right turn after a full stop at a red traffic light, but in other states drivers may turn only at a green light. In many places, but not everywhere, it is against the law to drive or ride without a seat belt. As another example, some communities have helmet laws: motorcycle riders and bicycle riders under a certain age have to wear these hard hats for safety. There are even laws for walkers: in many U.S. cities you can get a ticket for jaywalking (crossing the street in the middle instead of at the corner). Of course, other countries may have similar traffic laws. For instance, jaywalking is against the law in Russian cities too. What happens if a car hits a jaywalker? The walker has to pay a fine, but not the driver!

What about regulations and customs in other areas of people's lives? Some communities have a lot of rules about legal and illegal individual activities--even drinking and smoking. For instance, in most places in the United States, no one under twenty-one can buy or drink alcohol legally--even beer or wine. In some communities, it's illegal to drink a can of beer on a public street; it's also against the law to have an open alcohol container in a car. Similarly, smoking is no longer legal in public places--such as workplaces, restaurants, airports, and on airline flights within the United States. In Japan and other places, there is a legal age for smoking; in some Moslem countries, all smoking is against religious law. On the other hand, many people around the world drink and smoke--including more and more teenagers and young people. Customs and habits do not always go along with health or safety regulations or laws.

In the beginning, most local laws have a clear purpose or reason; even so, after many years, these same regulations can seem very strange or unusual. Here are some examples of old rules about personal relationships. In the backcountry of New Zealand, a man with many sisters can have the same number of wives. How is this custom legal? The man can give one sister to each of his wives' families! In some Indian communities, it is illegal for a young man and woman--married or not, to hold hands in a bus or train station; if they do, they have to pay an expensive fine. The law in some Chinese towns doesn't allow a man to give a woman a chicken leg during a meal; he can give her other chicken parts, but not a leg. And in Worland, Wyoming (a state in the United States), no married man may go camping alone or with his friends; he has to take along his wife! These old laws are probably still in effect, but not many people follow them.

How Can I Get to the Post Office? (4-1)

Listen to this article

I have a special rule for travel: Never carry a map. I prefer to ask for directions. Sometimes I get lost, but I usually have a good time. And there are some other advantages: I can practice a new language, meet new people, learn new cus¬toms, and the like. I can find out about different "styles" of directions every time I ask, "How can I get to the post office?" Here are some illustrations of those differences.

Tourists are often confused in Japan. That's because most streets there don't have names; outside big cities, people most often use landmarks in their directions. For example, the Japanese might tell travelers something like this: "Go straight down to the corner. Turn left at the big hotel with the sushi bar and go past the fruit market. The post office is across from the bus stop--next to the fast-food fried chicken place."

In the United States, people might give directions in different ways according to their region or community. As an example, in the countryside of the American Midwest, there are not usually many landmarks. There are no mountains, so the land is very flat; in many places there are no towns or buildings for miles. Instead of landmarks, residents of the flatlands will tell you directions and distances. In the states of Kansas or Iowa, for instance, people will say, "Go straight north for two miles. Turn right, and then go another mile in a northeast direction. "

On the other hand, people in Los Angeles, California, have no idea of directions or distance on the map. Residents of this Pacific coast area are almost always in their cars, so they measure distance in time. "How far away is the post office?" you ask. "Oh," they might answer, "I guess it's about five minutes from here." You say, "Yes, but how many miles away is it--or how many kilometers or blocks?" They rarely know--or can seldom say.

Sometimes, people in the European country of Greece do not even try to give directions; that's because tourists seldom understand the Greek language. Instead, a Greek may motion or gesture or say, "Follow me." Then that person will lead you through the streets of a city to the post office.

What if a person doesn't know the answer to your question about the loca¬tion of a place? A New Yorker might say, "Sorry, I have no idea" and walk away quickly. But in Yucatan, Mexico, not many residents answer, "I don't know." People in Yucatan may believe that a quick "I don't know" is impolite; they might stay and talk to you--and usually they'll try to give an answer, sometimes a wrong one. A tourist without a good sense of direction can get very, very lost in this southern region!

One thing will help you everywhere--in Japan, the United States, Greece, Mexico, or any other place. You might not understand a person's words, but you can probably understand the body language--the facial expressions, gestures, motions, movements, and so on. He or she will usually turn and then point. Go in that direction and you'll find the post office--maybe!

Facts About Food (3-2)

Listen to this article

Food Fights

Everywhere on earth there are "food specialists" with different or opposite views on the best kinds of nutrition for various purposes. A lot of people believe the most healthful diets are high in fiber, vitamins, and minerals but low in fat, cholesterol, sugar, and salt. Some nutritionists say the perfect eating plan contains mostly carbohydrates without much protein. In contrast, other scientists say people need high-protein meals with meat, chicken, fish, or milk products and only small amounts of grains, potatoes, breads, rice, and noodles. One famous diet plan allows only certain foods at certain times--protein with protein, carbohydrates with carbohydrates, fruits alone, and so on. Some eaters stay away from all meat and maybe even fish and milk products. They get their protein from plants, mostly beans. Others want only high-fiber food. These people may not eat white bread or white rice or even cooked vegetables. So what is the best way to eat and be healthy? The discussion of this topic will go on far into the future.

The necessary substances and elements for human life and health are water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Most kinds of food contain some or all of these nutrients, but they are not all the same in their effects on people. Various ingredients and dishes affect the mind in different ways, and some kinds of nourishment have better effects on the brain than others. For instance, can broccoli increase brain power? Maybe so. Low levels of some of the B-vitamins can cause a decrease in memory and thinking ability, nutritionists say, but dark green vegetables contain a lot of these nutrients. Another example of a "memory helper" is lecithin--a substance from soybeans, also found in high-fiber foods like nuts and whole grains. High-protein foods influence the mind in more helpful ways than dishes high in sugar and carbohydrates. And the caffeine in coffee or tea may help thinking. Of course, its effects don't last long.

In many places outside big cities, food with more than four legs is part of good, nutritious home cooking. Fried or grilled ants are a tasty but expensive snack in Columbia, South America. In various parts of Mexico, over 300 types of insects serve as food. In southern Africa, many people like to eat at least one kind of caterpillar or worm. They enjoy it fried, dried, or cooked in tomato sauce. In Thailand, cooks create a spicy hot-pepper sauce with water bugs. In Vietnam, grasshoppers filled with peanuts are a special dish. And in some regions of China, bugs are not only a part of meals but an important ingredient in medicine too. Most kinds of insects have high nutritional value. They contain a lot of protein, vitamins, and minerals. Many people like their taste. They are everywhere on the planet. They add to the variety of people's diets. For several reasons, insects are an important kind of food in the global diet, and they will become a more common ingredient in the future.

The growing similarities in diet and eating habits around the world are influencing people of various cultures in different ways. For example, Western foods are damaging health in the industrialized island country of Japan. Instead of small meals of seafood, rice, and vegetables, the typical Japanese diet now includes large amounts of meat, dairy products (like whole-milk ice cream), and desserts like tiramisu, a rich Italian dessert full of chocolate, cheese, and sugar. According to Japanese health researchers, such changes in eating habits are related to a great increase in health problems such as heart disease, strokes, cancer, and diabetes. On the other hand, the changing global diet is having the opposite effect on the people in the Czech Republic. The government of this European nation no longer supports meat and dairy products financially, so the cost of these foods is going up. In contrast, fresh fruits and vegetables are becoming more widely available from private markets and stands. Cooks are even serving salads to schoolchildren, and families are eating more nutritious home-cooked meals. For these reasons, fewer Czech men are having heart attacks, the women are losing a lot of weight, and most people are living healthier lives.

The Changing Global Diet (3-1)

Listen to this article

Most words in the English language have more than one simple, or basic, meaning. One example is the word, diet. The most general definition of the noun is "a person's or a group's usual food choices and habits." In a more specific definition, diet means "an eating plan with only certain kinds or amounts of food." For instance, a diet is often a plan to lose weight. And as a verb, diet means "go on a diet."

All over the world, the global diet includes fast food--prepared items from inexpensive restaurants, snack bars, or food stands. Some examples of typically American fast food are hamburgers, hot dogs, sandwiches, fried chicken, and so on. Some types of international fast foods might be German sausage and schnitzel, Italian pizza and pasta, Mexican tacos and burritos, Middle Eastern shish kebob and falafel, Japanese sushi and tempura, Chinese eggrolls and noodles, and the like. The variety of fast foods available on the planet is growing. Even so, this kind of style of nourishment is becoming universal, or worldwide. Fast-food places usually prepare and serve the items quickly. Many are part of fast-food chains (eating places with the same name and company owner). For instance, the biggest and most famous American fast-food chain serves hamburgers in every continent on the planet except Antarctica. In over 120 different countries, its 25,000 eating places have the same look. They have a similar atmosphere. The menu items may not be exactly alike from one culture to another, but the style and taste of the foods don't differ much.

For several reasons, many people choose fast food. First, it is quick and convenient. Second, it is cheaper than special home-cooked meals or formal restaurant dinners. And third, it is identical in every eating place with the same company name. The atmosphere and style of most fast-food places is casual, comfortable, and familiar. So why do other eaters dislike or stay away from this fast, easy kind of nourishment? The main reason is its low nutritional value. Fast food doesn't contain large amounts of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and the like--elements necessary for good nutrition and health. In contrast, most types of fast food have a lot of fat, cholesterol, sugar, or salt in them. Possibly, these substances can cause or increase health disorders, like heart disease, strokes, and some kinds of cancer.

Some people believe food should be perfectly fresh and "natural." According to natural food eaters, fast food is not good for human beings. They don't believe convenience foods--canned, frozen, or packaged in other ways--are very nutritious either. On the other hand, these quick and easy kinds of worldwide nourishment are generally getting better and more healthful. For instance, many fast-food restaurants now have salad bars and put vegetable items on their menus. In some places, customers can get fish or vegieburgers instead of hamburgers, and grilled chicken instead of fried. Also, some newer kinds of packaged and prepared foods contain less fat, cholesterol, sugar, or salt than before. Of course, people everywhere like to snack on junk food (candy, cookies, potato chips, ice cream, and other things without much nutritional value). For health and sales reasons, some snack food companies are producing packaged items with less fat, sugar, or salt. And nutrition bars--snacks with a lot of protein, vitamins, and other nourishing food elements--are becoming more widely available.

Of course, human beings around the world don't always eat in fast-food places. They don't buy only canned, frozen, or packaged convenience items from stores or machines. A few families are producing food on their own, but most people buy it from markets in their communities. Some choose only natural food, items without chemical substances. Many families prepare good meals at home. Other people are restaurant customers. Universally, more meals include the basic necessary food elements--protein, carbohydrates, and fats. A greater number of dishes contains the necessary vitamins and minerals. Almost everywhere, some kind of meat, fish, dairy product, or another protein food is part of a good breakfast, lunch, or dinner. There are also grains, breads, vegetables, fruit, and the like. The variety of food choices is large now and is probably going to increase. The number of food preparation methods is growing too. Cooking customs, eating habits, and food preferences all over the world are becoming more healthful. In these and other ways, the global diet is changing.

Global Climate Changes (2-2)

Listen to this article

The word, weather, means "the atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time." The weather can vary from day to day. In contrast to weather, climate is "the general or average atmospheric conditions of a region." In different areas of the globe the climate generally stays the same from year to year. For example, the climate in the desert is usually very dry. It may be cold in winter and hot in summer, but there is very little rain or humidity. In contrast, in tropical rain forests there is very high humidity. In most other areas of the world, the weather is cool or cold and wet or dry in the winter season. It is warm or hot and dry or humid in the summer months.

Climate in Regions of the Globe
According to some meteorologists (weather researchers), the earth's climate is changing slowly. In most places on the planet, the weather varies from season to season or even from day to day. In contrast, the typical climate is similar every year. Even so, there may be global climate changes from one long time period to another. What are these changes? Some scientists believe the weather is becoming more extreme. There are longer periods of very cold and very hot temperatures. There are more and more powerful hurricanes and tornados (storms with strong fast winds) and blizzards (heavy snowstorms). Floods (large amounts of water on dry land) and long droughts (times without enough rain) are causing greater and greater physical damage to the human communities on earth. These extreme forces of nature will get even worse in the future, say some people. And every change in climate in one part of the globe will bring more extreme changes in other areas.

Global warming and EI Nino are having major effects on the earth's atmosphere, the weather, and the changing world climate. At least that's the opinion of many researchers and scientists. What is global warming? It is a slow increase in the average yearly temperature of the planet. The cause is an increase of gases in the atmosphere. What is EI Nino? The Spanish phrase means "The Little Boy" or "The Christ Child." It names a weather condition most common in the month of December. This "seasonal weather disorder" is a change in the atmosphere of the tropical areas of the Pacific Ocean. It increases the amount of rain in the Americas and can bring strong winds and hurricanes. In contrast, El Nino may cause drought in the southern and western Pacific (Asia). Blizzards, snow, and long periods of low temperatures may follow in the northern regions of the globe.

Not all meteorologists believe there is much natural global warming. According to these scientists, the El Nino effect is not getting stronger. So why is the temperature of the earth going up? Why are tropical storms like hurricanes causing more and greater flood and wind damage? Probably, human beings are the main cause of the extreme effects of weather and climate changes. Cars and factories are putting more and more gases like carbon dioxide (C02) into the earth's atmosphere. Coal and oil add carbon dioxide to the air too. Trees and plants take in carbon dioxide, but humans are cutting down the rain forests and putting up buildings where green plants grow. The world has a lot of people now, and it will have a lot more people in the future.

The Powerful Influence of Weather (2-1)

Listen to this article

Weather has a powerful effect on the physical world. It also affects people's personalities. How do we know about the effects of weather on people? We know from biometeorologists. These scientists are weather researchers. They study human health and emotions in response to atmospheric conditions. The word atmosphere means "the air around the earth." "Atmospheric conditions at a time or place" is a definition of the word weather. Some examples of these conditions are sun, wind, rain, snow, humidity (the amount of moisture in the air), and air pressure (the force of air). The weather conditions of the atmosphere greatly influence people's health, thinking, and feelings.

All over the world winds come down from high mountain areas. The winds fall faster and faster, and the air becomes warmer and drier. What do scientists say about the health effects of this kind of weather? According to biometeorologists in Russia, powerful winds from the mountains increase the number of strokes (blood vessel attacks in the brain). Also, sometimes strong southern winds blow north over Italy. During these times, researchers say, Italians have more heart attacks (sudden stopping of the heart). People everywhere have bad headaches during times of forceful winds. And Japanese weather scientists say there is an increase in the number of asthma attacks. (Asthma is a lung disorder. It causes breathing problems.)

Do other kinds of weather influence physical health? Sudden temperature changes in winter are often associated with colds or flu. (Influenza is a viral disease.) However, colds and flu probably increase because people are in close contact indoors in cold weather. Colds and flu may even lead to pneumonia (another lung disease). Other illnesses also increase during long periods (times) of cold weather. In most places, diseases of the blood and heart attacks are more common in winter. But in some very hot and humid (wet) regions, there are more heart attacks in summer. Many people have high blood pressure (a health condition). In three out of four people, blood pressure falls (goes down) in warm weather. But some people have lower blood pressure in the cool or cold times of the year.

These forces of nature greatly affect people's moods (emotional conditions and feelings) too. For many people, winter in the northern regions is very depressing. They eat and sleep a lot, but they usually feel tired. They are nervous and can't work well. They are irritable (not very nice to other people). Biometeorologists even have a name for this condition. The name is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). Scientists think the cause of this mood disorder is the long periods of darkness. Even during the day, it is often cloudy or gray. What can people with SAD do about their moods? Naturally, they need more light! On bright days they feel better. But people don't work very well on sunny, hot, and humid days. The best weather for good work and thinking is cool and clear.

Are the people around you becoming sick more often? Are they getting more colds or the flu or even pneumonia? Are they having more health problems like headaches or asthma attacks or heart disease? Or are you becoming moody? Are you getting more tired or depressed (low in mood) or sad? Remember--according to biometeorologists and other weather scientists--the cause may be the atmosphere!

College Life Around the World (1-2)

Listen to this article


Similarities in Student Life
At colleges and universities around the world, students from other places live in student housing, apartments, or the private homes of other people. They walk to school, or get there by bicycle, or by car, or with public transportation like the bus or subway. They take courses and attend classes. They study and take quizzes or tests or exams. They complete requirements. After years of study, they get certificates or college degrees. Outside school, they have other interests and family or social lives. In some ways, life on the campuses of institutions of higher learning is the same everywhere in the world.

Systems of Higher Education
Maybe student life is similar but the system of higher education differs in countries around the world. For example, in the United States, postsecondary students can live at home and go to community colleges for two years or more. Or they can choose four-year state or private colleges or universities. They can get financial aid, like scholarships, grants, or loans. With undergraduate degrees, they can attend graduate school. The system is different in some countries of Asia or the Middle East, like Iran. There, students take an exit exam in their last year of high school. The people with the highest scores attend the best universities in the country. Other students can go to other kinds of colleges or get jobs.

There is another system in Germany. In that country, most graduates of academic high schools go to public universities or technical colleges. These schools don't charge high tuition or educational fees, and students can stay in school for many years.

Differences in Teaching and Learning Styles
But not only the system of higher education can vary. Teaching and learning methods and styles differ in various cultures, at different colleges and universities, and in individual courses. For example, the atmosphere in many classrooms is very formal. Students use titles for their instructors, like "Professor Smith," "Mrs. Jones," and so on. Some teachers wear business clothes and give academic lectures. Other classrooms have an informal atmosphere. Instructors dress casually, and students use their first names. In this relaxed atmosphere, class members work together in groups. They give their opinions and talk about their ideas. Some teachers always follow a course plan or the textbook. They give a lot of assignments. They give points, scores, or grades for homework. In their courses, students take many quizzes, tests, and exams. Allover the world, there are teaching and learning differences.

Campus Facilities and Services
And what about the facilities and services available to students at college and university campuses around the world? At many institutions of higher learning, resources for learning and recreation are available to students. At libraries, they can read and study books and other materials. At learning resource centers, they can often work on computers. Maybe they can use educational software programs or the World Wide Web or Internet. Sometimes audio or video equipment is available. And people can buy books, supplies, and other things at campus stores. Also, learners can get advice from counselors and individual help with their courses from tutors. Maybe they can relax and have fun on campus too. Some schools have swimming pools, tennis courts, and other sports facilities. Most have snackbars, cafeterias, or other eating places. And at some schools, not all students go to the campus. They take Internet courses by computer, see and hear lectures on television, or use other kinds of distance learning.